9/4/2017 0 Comments Littera Text Medium FreeFull text of . Introduction. II. The Earliest Migrations into Italy. III. The Settlements of the Latins. IV. The Beginnings of Rome. V. The Original Constitution of Rome. VI. The Non- Burgesses and the Reformed Constitution. VII. The Hegemony of Rome in Latium. VIII. The Umbro- Sabellian Stocks- -Beginnings of the Samnites. IX. The Etruscans. X. The Hellenes in Italy- -Maritime Supremacy of the Tuscans. Typefaces related to the medieval lettering in the carolingian style. Truecaller introduced a new feature - Transliteration - to make app more user friendly with a new version update to the Hindi version of Truecaller. Dit is de webstek van één van de verenigingen, die vergaderen in het CMLP.
KDictionaries Company site, Web app, iphone app, language app.Carthaginians. XI. Law and Justice. XII. Religion. XIII. Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce. XIV. Measuring and Writing. BOOK II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union. Italy. I. Change of the Constitution- -Limitation of the Power of the. Magistrate. II. The Tribunate of the Plebs and the Decemvirate. III. The Equalization of the Orders, and the New Aristocracy. IV. Fall of the Etruscan Power- -the Celts. V. Subjugation of the Latins and Campanians by Rome. VI. Struggle of the Italians against Rome. VII. Struggle Between Pyrrhus and Rome, and Union of Italy. VIII. Law- -Religion- -Military System- -Economic Condition- -Nationality. IX. Art and Science. BOOK III: From the Union of Italy to the Subjugation of Carthage. Greek States. I. Carthage. II. The War between Rome and Carthage Concerning Sicily. III. The Extension of Italy to Its Natural Boundaries. IV. Hamilcar and Hannibal. V. The War under Hannibal to the Battle of Cannae. VI. The War under Hannibal from Cannae to Zama. VII. The West from the Peace of Hannibal to the Close. Third Period. VIII. The Eastern States and the Second Macedonian War. IX. The War with Antiochus of Asia. X. The Third Macedonian War. XI. The Government and the Governed. XII. The Management of Land and of Capital. XIII. Faith and Manners. XIV. Literature and Art. BOOK IV: The Revolution. I. The Subject Countries Down to the Times of the Gracchi. II. The Reform Movement and Tiberius Gracchus. III. The Revolution and Gaius Gracchus. IV. The Rule of the Restoration. V. The Peoples of the North. VI. The Attempt of Marius at Revolution and the Attempt. Drusus at Reform. VII. The Revolt of the Italian Subjects, and the Sulpician. Revolution. VIII. The East and King Mithradates. IX. Cinna and Sulla. X. The Sullan Constitution. XI. The Commonwealth and Its Economy. XII. Nationality, Religion, and Education. XIII. Literature and Art. BOOK V: The Establishment of the Military Monarchy. I. Marcus Lepidus and Quintus Sertorius. II. Rule of the Sullan Restoration. III. The Fall of the Oligarchy and the Rule of Pompeius. IV. Pompeius and the East. V. The Struggle of Parties during the Absence of Pompeius. VI. Retirement of Pompeius and Coalition of the Pretenders. VII. The Subjugation of the West. VIII. The Joint Rule of Pompeius and Caesar. IX. Death of Crassus- -Rupture between the Joint Rulers. X. Brundisium, Ilerda, Pharsalus, and Thapsus. XI. The Old Republic and the New Monarchy. XII. Religion, Culture, Literature, and Art. THE HISTORY OF ROME: BOOK I. The Period Anterior to the Abolition of the Monarchy. Preparer's Note. This work contains many literal citations of and references to foreign. Gothic and Phoenician, but chiefly Latin and Greek. XIV: Measuring and Writing). Mommsen has given his dates in terms of Roman usage, A. U. C.. that is, from the founding of Rome, conventionally taken to be 7. B. Schmitz, introducing to the English reader the. Schmitz's friendly offices. Mommsen's 'Romische Geschichte,'. I am somewhat in the position of Albinus; who, when appealing to. Roman History which. Greek, was met by Cato with the. Amphictyonic Council had laid their commands on him, the case would. Mommsen's. work accidentally came into my hands some years after its first. I had long. laid aside for others more strictly professional, I had little doubt. Oxford to induce some of her great. English dress. George Robertson published an excellent translation (to which. I desire to acknowledge my obligations) of the. Italy; but other. Mommsen's permission to. Mommsen, who has kindly. Mommsen often uses expressions that are not. German language for the. Mommsen's book, as in every other German work that has. Mommsen is marked by any. Schmitz, who has kindly encouraged me in. I should state that I alone am responsible. Mommsen was good enough some time ago. I thought it due to him and to the favour with which the translation. I should subject it to such a fresh revision. German, on which, as I learn from him, he hardly. Mommsen. himself and of the numerous English scholars who have made it the. I trust that in the. It has, I believe, been largely in use at Oxford for the last. Baring- Gould. who in his Tragedy of the Caesars (vol. Dr. Mommsen's well- known . MOMMSEN. The Varronian computation by years of the City is retained in the. Christ. 6, 3 and the first eight of Ol. I have deemed it, in general, sufficient to give the value of. Roman money approximately in round numbers, assuming for that. TR. Introduction. II. The Earliest Migrations into Italy. III. The Settlements of the Latins. IV. The Beginnings of Rome. V. The Original Constitution of Rome. VI. The Non- Burgesses and the Reformed Constitution. VII. The Hegemony of Rome in Latium. VIII. The Umbro- Sabellian Stocks- -Beginnings of the Samnites. IX. The Etruscans. X. The Hellenes in Italy- -Maritime Supremacy of the Tuscans. Carthaginians. XI. Law and Justice. XII. Religion. XIII. Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce. XIV. Measuring and Writing. The Period Anterior to the Abolition of the Monarchy. Ta palaiotera saphos men eurein dia chronou pleithos adunata. Thucydides. The second. Punic wars; it embraces the rapid extension. Rome up to and beyond the natural boundaries of. Italy, the long status quo of the imperial period, and the collapse. Servius on Aen. 1. Rossbach, Rom. Ehe, 2. Greece Demeter (Plutarch, Conjug. Italians. 2. 2. 26), compares with the Roman Campagna the district of Limagne. Auvergne, which is likewise a wide, much intersected, and uneven. Dionys. 4. 9); and a war. Macrob. 2. 41, and Dionys. Alba as a Latin Athens. With the latter group there has been. Romans. We are unable, of course, to tell how or when. Romans, but Ramnians (Ramnes); and this shifting of sound, which. Latin,(1) is an expressive testimony to the. Its derivation cannot be given with. In the earliest division of the burgesses of Rome a. Ramnians, Tities, and Luceres, into a single commonwealth- -in other. Athens. arose in Attica.(2) The great antiquity of this threefold division. Romans, in matters especially of constitutional law, regularly. After the union each of these. These. three elements into which the primitive body of burgesses in Rome. The irrational opinion that the Roman nation. Italian races as elements entering into the composition of. Rome, and to transform a people which has exhibited. Etruscan. and Sabine, Hellenic and, forsooth! The second of these communities. Sabina; and. this view can at least be traced to a tradition preserved in the. Titian brotherhood, which represented that priestly college as. Tities being admitted. Sabine ritual. It may be, therefore, that at a period. Latin and Sabellian stocks were beyond question. Roman and the Samnite of a later age, a Sabellian community. Latin canton- union; and, as in the older and more. Tities take precedence. Ramnians, it is probable that the intruding Tities compelled. Ramnians to accept the - -synoikismos- -. With the exception, perhaps, of isolated national institutions. Sabellian. elements can nowhere be pointed out in Rome; and the Latin. It would in fact be more than surprising, if the. Latin nation should have had its nationality in any sensible degree. Tides settled beside the Ramnians, Latin. Latium as its basis, and not on Rome. The new. tripartite Roman commonwealth was, notwithstanding some incidental. Sabellian, just what the community. Ramnians had previously been- -a portion of the Latin nation. The founding of a city. Rome was not built in. Neither the. vine nor the fig succeed well in the immediate environs, and there. Camenae before the Porta. Capena, nor the Capitoline well, afterwards enclosed within the. Tullianum, furnish it in any abundance. Another disadvantage arises. Its. very slight fall renders it unable to carry off the water, which. For a settler the locality. In antiquity itself an opinion was. Such tales, which profess. Latium. Towards the east the towns of Antemnae, Fidenae, Caenina. Gabii lie in the immediate neighbourhood, some of them not five. Servian ring- wall; and the boundary of the. In like manner, towards the south- west, the. Rome and Lavinium was at the sixth milestone. Between Rome and the coast there. The legend indeed. Roman possessions on the right bank of. Tiber, the . But. Etruscan bank of the Tiber must have belonged. Rome; for in this very quarter, at. Dea Dia- ), the primitive chief seat of. Arval festival and Arval brotherhood of Rome. Indeed from time. Romilii, once the chief probably of all. Roman clans, was settled in this very quarter; the Janiculum. Ostia was a burgess colony. The Tiber was. the natural highway for the traffic of Latium; and its mouth, on. Moreover, the Tiber formed from very ancient. Latin stock against their northern. It combined the advantages of a strong position. Tiber or the. Anio, and for the seafarer with vessels of so moderate a size as. That Rome. was indebted, if not for its origin, at any rate for its importance. Thence arose its very ancient relations with Caere, which. Etruria what Rome was to Latium, and accordingly became Rome's. Thence arose the unusual. Tiber, and of bridge- building. Roman commonwealth. Thence came the galley in the. Roman port- duties on the. Ostia, which were from the first levied only. In this sense, then. Rome may have been, as the legend assumes, a creation. Latin cities. Beyond doubt the country was already in some. Alban range as well as various other. Campagna were occupied by strongholds, when the Latin. Tiber. Whether it was a resolution. Latin confederacy, or the clear- sighted genius of some. Rome into being, it is vain even to surmise. At the time. when history begins to dawn on us, Rome appears, in contradistinction. Latin communities, as a compact urban unity. Literature - Wikipedia. Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. More restrictively, literature is writing that is considered to be an art form, or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts, though contemporary definitions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or sung (oral literature). The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to have non- written verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of language or writing itself. Developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non- fiction, and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre). Definitions. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change over time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well. It was the form's close relation to real life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance. Summarizing the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi concludes . Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern short story writers (e. Anton Chekhov). A play is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is intended for performance in a theater; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the page. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well- known historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non- stage media have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1. Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media. History. When defined exclusively as written work, Ancient Egyptian literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the pre- urban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written down. Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about our. Through the study of past literature we. This can even help us to understand references made in more modern literature because authors often make references to Greek mythology and other old religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book about the history of economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but one can also learn about these things in fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord Byron talks about the Spanish and the French in . Through literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see how all academic fields have roots in literature. Eventually everything was written down, from things like home remedies and cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were able to study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the medical field or trades could be started. In much the same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as we. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre- literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium. In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print cultures. The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 3. BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th- century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming. In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1. BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1. BCE, and the . Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas. In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character- based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books. In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 1. But as the 1. 9th century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 2. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than external realities. Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 2. The separation of . William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post- modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general. There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names . Now, science appears mostly in journals. Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of literary study. Outside of . More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers through history—Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche—have become as canonical as any writers. Universidade da Coru. Xoana Capdevielle, Campus Elvi.
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